Athar Alrafedain

Abstract

The student of the civilization of Iraq and its Arab-Islamic heritage since the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate at the hands of the Mongols in the year 656 AH until the beginning of the Ottoman rule in the year 941 AH will find that the situation in Iraq in general and Mosul in particular was characterized by chaos and instability, and many invading foreign governments began to rule, starting with the Mongols and the Ilkhanids. Then the Jalayiris, then the Turkmen, and finally the Safavid Persians, who went too far in violating the cities of Iraq, one after the other, until the Ottomans came and took control of the country.